Conclusions

What this handout is about

This handout will explain the functions of conclusions, offer strategies for writing effective ones, help you evaluate your drafted conclusions, and suggest conclusion strategies to avoid.

About conclusions

Introductions and conclusions can be the most difficult parts of papers to write. While the body is often easier to write, it needs a frame around it. An introduction and conclusion frame your thoughts and bridge your ideas for the reader.
Just as your introduction acts as a bridge that transports your readers from their own lives into the "place" of your analysis, your conclusion can provide a bridge to help your readers make the transition back to their daily lives. Such a conclusion will help them see why all your analysis and information should matter to them after they put the paper down.
Your conclusion is your chance to have the last word on the subject. The conclusion allows you to have the final say on the issues you have raised in your paper, to summarize your thoughts, to demonstrate the importance of your ideas, and to propel your reader to a new view of the subject. It is also your opportunity to make a good final impression and to end on a positive note.
Your conclusion can go beyond the confines of the assignment. The conclusion pushes beyond the boundaries of the prompt and allows you to consider broader issues, make new connections, and elaborate on the significance of your findings.
Your conclusion should make your readers glad they read your paper. Your conclusion gives your reader something to take away that will help them see things differently or appreciate your topic in personally relevant ways. It can suggest broader implications that will not only interest your reader, but also enrich your reader's life in some way. It is your gift to the reader.

Strategies for writing an effective conclusion

One or more of the following strategies may help you write an effective conclusion.

• Play the "So What" Game. If you're stuck and feel like your conclusion isn't saying anything new or interesting, ask a friend to read it with you. Whenever you make a statement from your conclusion, ask the friend to say, "So what?" or "Why should anybody care?" Then ponder that question and answer it. Here's how it might go:
  
  

  You: Basically, I'm just saying that education was important to Douglass.
  Friend: So what?
  You: Well, it was important because it was a key to him feeling like a free and equal citizen.
  Friend: Why should anybody care?
  You: That's important because plantation owners tried to keep slaves from being educated so that they could maintain control. When Douglass obtained an education, he undermined that control personally.
  

  You can also use this strategy on your own, asking yourself "So What?" as you develop your ideas or your draft.
  
• Return to the theme or themes in the introduction. This strategy brings the reader full circle. For example, if you begin by describing a scenario, you can end with the same scenario as proof that your essay is helpful in creating a new understanding. You may also refer to the introductory paragraph by using key words or parallel concepts and images that you also used in the introduction.
• Synthesize, don't summarize: Include a brief summary of the paper's main points, but don't simply repeat things that were in your paper. Instead, show your reader how the points you made and the support and examples you used fit together. Pull it all together.
• Include a provocative insight or quotation from the research or reading you did for your paper.
• Propose a course of action, a solution to an issue, or questions for further study. This can redirect your reader's thought process and help her to apply your info and ideas to her own life or to see the broader implications.
• Point to broader implications. For example, if your paper examines the Greensboro sit-ins or another event in the Civil Rights Movement, you could point out its impact on the Civil Rights Movement as a whole. A paper about the style of writer Virginia Woolf could point to her influence on other writers or on later feminists.

Strategies to avoid

• Beginning with an unnecessary, overused phrase such as "in conclusion," "in summary," or "in closing." Although these phrases can work in speeches, they come across as wooden and trite in writing.
• Stating the thesis for the very first time in the conclusion.
• Introducing a new idea or subtopic in your conclusion.
• Ending with a rephrased thesis statement without any substantive changes.
• Making sentimental, emotional appeals that are out of character with the rest of an analytical paper.
• Including evidence (quotations, statistics, etc.) that should be in the body of the paper.

Four kinds of ineffective conclusions

1. The "That's My Story and I'm Sticking to It" Conclusion. This conclusion just restates the thesis and is usually painfully short. It does not push the ideas forward. People write this kind of conclusion when they can't think of anything else to say. Example: In conclusion, Frederick Douglass was, as we have seen, a pioneer in American education, proving that education was a major force for social change with regard to slavery.
2. The "Sherlock Holmes" Conclusion. Sometimes writers will state the thesis for the very first time in the conclusion. You might be tempted to use this strategy if you don't want to give everything away too early in your paper. You may think it would be more dramatic to keep the reader in the dark until the end and then "wow" him with your main idea, as in a Sherlock Holmes mystery. The reader, however, does not expect a mystery, but an analytical discussion of your topic in an academic style, with the main argument (thesis) stated up front. Example: (After a paper that lists numerous incidents from the book but never says what these incidents reveal about Douglass and his views on education): So, as the evidence above demonstrates, Douglass saw education as a way to undermine the slaveholders' power and also an important step toward freedom.
3. The "America the Beautiful"/"I Am Woman"/"We Shall Overcome" Conclusion. This kind of conclusion usually draws on emotion to make its appeal, but while this emotion and even sentimentality may be very heartfelt, it is usually out of character with the rest of an analytical paper. A more sophisticated commentary, rather than emotional praise, would be a more fitting tribute to the topic. Example: Because of the efforts of fine Americans like Frederick Douglass, countless others have seen the shining beacon of light that is education. His example was a torch that lit the way for others. Frederick Douglass was truly an American hero.
4. The "Grab Bag" Conclusion. This kind of conclusion includes extra information that the writer found or thought of but couldn't integrate into the main paper. You may find it hard to leave out details that you discovered after hours of research and thought, but adding random facts and bits of evidence at the end of an otherwise-well-organized essay can just create confusion. Example: In addition to being an educational pioneer, Frederick Douglass provides an interesting case study for masculinity in the American South. He also offers historians an interesting glimpse into slave resistance when he confronts Covey, the overseer. His relationships with female relatives reveal the importance of family in the slave community.

Argument

What this handout is about

This handout will define what an argument is and explain why you need one in most of your academic essays.

Arguments are everywhere

You may be surprised to hear that the word "argument" does not have to be written anywhere in your assignment for it to be an important part of your task. In fact, making an argument—expressing a point of view on a subject and supporting it with evidence—is often the aim of academic writing. Your instructors may assume that you know this and thus may not explain the importance of arguments in class.
Most material you learn in college is or has been debated by someone, somewhere, at some time. Even when the material you read or hear is presented as simple "fact," it may actually be one person's interpretation of a set of information. Instructors may call on you to examine that interpretation and defend it, refute it, or offer some new view of your own. In writing assignments, you will almost always need to do more than just summarize information that you have gathered or regurgitate facts that have been discussed in class. You will need to develop a point of view on or interpretation of that material and provide evidence for your position.
If you think that "fact," not argument, rules intelligent thinking, consider an example. For nearly 2000 years, educated people in many Western cultures believed that bloodletting—deliberately causing a sick person to lose blood—was the most effective treatment for a variety of illnesses. The "fact" that bloodletting is beneficial to human health was not widely questioned until the 1800's, and some physicians continued to recommend bloodletting as late as the 1920's. We have come to accept a different set of "facts" now because some people began to doubt the effectiveness of bloodletting; these people argued against it and provided convincing evidence. Human knowledge grows out of such differences of opinion, and scholars like your instructors spend their lives engaged in debate over what may be counted as "true," "real," or "right" in their fields. In their courses, they want you to engage in similar kinds of critical thinking and debate.
Argumentation is not just what your instructors do. We all use argumentation on a daily basis, and you probably already have some skill at crafting an argument. The more you improve your skills in this area, the better you will be at thinking critically, reasoning, making choices, and weighing evidence.

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Making a claim

What is an argument? In academic writing, an argument is usually a main idea, often called a "claim" or "thesis statement," backed up with evidence that supports the idea. In the majority of college papers, you will need to make some sort of claim and use evidence to support it, and your ability to do this well will separate your papers from those of students who see assignments as mere accumulations of fact and detail. In other words, gone are the happy days of being given a "topic" about which you can write anything. It is time to stake out a position and prove why it is a good position for a thinking person to hold.
Claims can be as simple as "Protons are positively charged and electrons are negatively charged," with evidence such as, "In this experiment, protons and electrons acted in such and such a way." Claims can also be as complex as "The end of the South African system of apartheid was inevitable," using reasoning and evidence such as, "Every successful revolution in the modern era has come about after the government in power has given and then removed small concessions to the uprising group." In either case, the rest of your paper will detail the reasoning and evidence that have led you to believe that your position is best.
When beginning to write a paper, ask yourself, "What is my point?" For example, the point of this handout is to help you become a better writer, and we are arguing that an important step in the process of writing effective arguments is understanding the concept of argumentation. If your papers do not have a main point, they cannot be arguing for anything. Asking yourself what your point is can help you avoid a mere "information dump." Consider this: your instructors probably know a lot more than you do about your subject matter. Why, then, would you want to provide them with material they already know? Instructors are usually looking for two things:

1. Proof that you understand the material, AND
2. A demonstration of your ability to use or apply the material in ways that go beyond what you have read or heard.

This second part can be done in many ways: you can critique the material, apply it to something else, or even just explain it in a different way. In order to succeed at this second step, though, you must have a particular point to argue.
Arguments in academic writing are usually complex and take time to develop. Your argument will need to be more than a simple or obvious statement such as "Frank Lloyd Wright was a great architect." Such a statement might capture your initial impressions of Wright as you have studied him in class; however, you need to look deeper and express specifically what caused that "greatness." Your instructor will probably expect something more complicated, such as "Frank Lloyd Wright's architecture combines elements of European modernism, Asian aesthetic form, and locally found materials to create a unique new style," or "There are many strong similarities between Wright's building designs and those of his mother, which suggests that he may have borrowed some of her ideas." To develop your argument, you would then define your terms and prove your claim with evidence from Wright's drawings and buildings and those of the other architects you mentioned.

Evidence

Do not stop with having a point. You have to back up your point with evidence. The strength of your evidence, and your use of it, can make or break your argument. You already have the natural inclination for this type of thinking, if not in an academic setting. Think about how you talked your parents into letting you borrow the family car. Did you present them with lots of instances of your past trustworthiness? Did you make them feel guilty because your friends' parents all let them drive? Did you whine until they just wanted you to shut up? Did you look up statistics on teen driving and use them to show how you didn't fit the dangerous-driver profile? These are all types of argumentation, and they exist in academia in similar forms.
Every field has slightly different requirements for acceptable evidence, so familiarize yourself with some arguments from within that field instead of just applying whatever evidence you like best. Pay attention to your textbooks and your instructor's lectures. What types of argument and evidence are they using? The type of evidence that sways an English instructor may not work to convince a sociology instructor. Find out what counts as proof that something is true in that field. Is it statistics, a logical development of points, something from the object being discussed (art work, text, culture, or atom), the way something works, or some combination of more than one of these things?
Be consistent with your evidence. Unlike negotiating for the use of your parents' car, a college paper is not the place for an all-out blitz of every type of argument. You can often use more than one type of evidence within a paper, but make sure that within each section you are providing the reader with evidence appropriate to each claim. So, if you start a paragraph or section with a statement like "Putting the student seating area closer to the basketball court will raise player performance," do not follow with your evidence on how much more money the university could raise by letting more students go to games for free. Information about how fan support raises player morale, which then results in better play, would be a better follow-up. Your next section could offer clear reasons why undergraduates have as much or more right to attend an undergraduate event as wealthy alumni—but this information would not go in the same section as the fan support stuff. You cannot convince a confused person, so keep things tidy and ordered.

Counterargument

One way to strengthen your argument and show that you have a deep understanding of the issue you are discussing is to anticipate and address counterarguments or objections. By considering what someone who disagrees with your position might have to say about your argument, you show that you have thought things through, and you dispose of some of the reasons your audience might have for not accepting your argument. Recall our discussion of student seating in the Dean Dome. To make the most effective argument possible, you should consider not only what students would say about seating but also what alumni who have paid a lot to get good seats might say.
You can generate counterarguments by asking yourself how someone who disagrees with you might respond to each of the points you've made or your position as a whole. If you can't immediately imagine another position, here are some strategies to try:

• Do some research. It may seem to you that no one could possibly disagree with the position you are arguing, but someone probably has. For example, some people argue that the American Civil War never ended. If you are making an argument concerning, for example, the outcomes of the Civil War, you might wish to see what some of these people have to say.
• Talk with a friend or with your teacher. Another person may be able to imagine counterarguments that haven't occurred to you.
• Consider your conclusion or claim and the premises of your argument and imagine someone who denies each of them. For example, if you argued "Cats make the best pets. This is because they are clean and independent," you might imagine someone saying "Cats do not make the best pets. They are dirty and needy."

Once you have thought up some counterarguments, consider how you will respond to them—will you concede that your opponent has a point but explain why your audience should nonetheless accept your argument? Will you reject the counterargument and explain why it is mistaken? Either way, you will want to leave your reader with a sense that your argument is stronger than opposing arguments.
When you are summarizing opposing arguments, be charitable. Present each argument fairly and objectively, rather than trying to make it look foolish. You want to show that you have seriously considered the many sides of the issue and that you are not simply attacking or caricaturing your opponents.
It is usually better to consider one or two serious counterarguments in some depth, rather than to give a long but superficial list of many different counterarguments and replies.
Be sure that your reply is consistent with your original argument. If considering a counterargument changes your position, you will need to go back and revise your original argument accordingly.

Audience

Audience is a very important consideration in argument. A lifetime of dealing with your family members has helped you figure out which arguments work best to persuade each of them. Maybe whining works with one parent, but the other will only accept cold, hard statistics. Your kid brother may listen only to the sound of money in his palm. It's usually wise to think of your audience in an academic setting as someone who is perfectly smart but who doesn't necessarily agree with you. You are not just expressing your opinion in an argument ("It's true because I said so"), and in most cases your audience will know something about the subject at hand—so you will need sturdy proof. At the same time, do not think of your audience as clairvoyant. You have to come out and state both your claim and your evidence clearly. Do not assume that because the instructor knows the material, he or she understands what part of it you are using, what you think about it, and why you have taken the position you've chosen.

Critical reading

Critical reading is a big part of understanding argument. Although some of the material you read will be very persuasive, do not fall under the spell of the printed word as authority. Very few of your instructors think of the texts they assign as the last word on the subject. Remember that the author of every text has an agenda, something that he or she wants you to believe. This is OK—everything is written from someone's perspective—but it's a good thing to be aware of. (For more information on objectivity and bias, please read our handout on evaluating print sources).
Take notes either in the margins of your source (if you are using a photocopy or your own book) or on a separate sheet as you read. Put away that highlighter! Simply highlighting a text is good for memorizing the main ideas in that text—it does not encourage critical reading. Part of your goal as a reader should be to put the author's ideas in your own words. Then you can stop thinking of these ideas as facts and start thinking of them as arguments.
When you read, ask yourself questions like "What is the author trying to prove?" and "What is the author assuming I will agree with?" Do you agree with the author? Does the author adequately defend her argument? What kind of proof does she use? Is there something she leaves out that you would put in? Does putting it in hurt her argument? As you get used to reading critically, you will start to see the sometimes hidden agendas of other writers, and you can use this skill to improve your own ability to craft effective arguments.

The Writer's Handbook

 

 

 

 

 

The Block Form

5 Hill Street
Madison, Wisconsin 53700
March 15, 2005
Ms. Helen Jones
President
Jones, Jones & Jones
123 International Lane
Boston, Massachusetts 01234

Dear Ms. Jones:
Ah, business letter format-there are block formats, and indented formats, and modified block formats . . . and who knows what others. To simplify matters, we're demonstrating the block format on this page, one of the two most common formats. For authoritative advice about all the variations, we highly recommend The Gregg Reference Manual, 9th ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2001), a great reference tool for workplace communications. There seems to be no consensus about such fine points as whether to skip a line after your return address and before the date: some guidelines suggest that you do; others do not. Let's hope that your business letter succeeds no matter which choice you make!
When you use the block form to write a business letter, all the information is typed flush left, with one-inch margins all around. First provide your own address, then skip a line and provide the date, then skip one more line and provide the inside address of the party to whom the letter is addressed. If you are using letterhead that already provides your address, do not retype that information; just begin with the date. For formal letters, avoid abbreviations where possible.
Skip another line before the salutation, which should be followed by a colon. Then write the body of your letter as illustrated here, with no indentation at the beginnings of paragraphs. Skip lines between paragraphs.
After writing the body of the letter, type the closing, followed by a comma, leave 3 blank lines, then type your name and title (if applicable), all flush left. Sign the letter in the blank space above your typed name. Now doesn't that look professional?
Sincerely,
 

John Doe
Administrative Assistant

Articles

 

 

What this handout is about

Because the article system is so complex and often idiosyncratic, it is especially difficult for non-native English speakers to master. This handout explains three basic rules that are the foundation of the article system and two basic questions that will help you choose the correct article in your writing. It provides examples of articles being used in context, and it ends with a section on special considerations for nouns in academic writing.

Using this handout

As you use the handout, try to keep three things in mind:

• First, this handout will be most effective if you use it as a tool. Every time you read this handout, read it along side another piece of writing (a journal article, a magazine, a web page, a novel, a text book, etc.). Locate a few nouns in the reading, and use the handout to analyze the article usage. If you practice a little bit at a time, this kind of analysis can help you develop a natural sensitivity to this complex system.
  
• Second, using articles correctly is a skill that develops over time through lots of reading, writing, speaking and listening. Think about the rules in this handout, but also try to pay attention to how articles are being used in the language around you. Simply paying attention can also help you develop a natural sensitivity to this complex system.
  
• Finally, although using the wrong article may distract a reader’s attention, it usually does not prevent the reader from understanding your meaning. So be patient with yourself as you learn.

Basic rules

This is a simple list, but understanding it and remembering it is crucial to using articles correctly.
Rule # 1: Every time a noun is mentioned, the writer is referring to:

1. All of them everywhere,
2. One of many, or
3. This one exactly

Rule # 2: Every kind of reference has a choice of articles:

1. All of them everywhere...(Ø, a/an, the)
2. One of many.................(Ø, a/an)
3. This one exactly............(Ø, the)

(Ø = no article)
Rule # 3: The choice of article depends upon the noun and the context. This will be explained more fully below.

Basic questions

To choose the best article, ask yourself these questions:

1. "What do I mean? Do I mean all of them everywhere, one of many, or this one exactly?"
2. "What kind of noun is it? Is it countable or not? Is it singular or plural? Does it have any special rules?"

Your answers to these questions will usually determine the correct article choice, and the following sections will show you how.

When you mean "all of them everywhere"

Talking about "all of them everywhere" is also called "generic reference." We use it to make generalizations: to say something true of all the nouns in a particular group, like an entire species of animal.
When you mean "all of them everywhere," you have three article choices: Ø, a/an, the. The choice of article depends on the noun. Ask yourself, "What kind of noun is it?"

1. Non-count nouns = no article (Ø)
a. Temperature is measured in degrees.
b. Money makes the world go around.
2. Plural nouns = no article (Ø)
a. Volcanoes are formed by pressure under the earth's surface.
b. Quagga zebras were hunted to extinction.
3. Singular nouns = the
a. The computer is a marvelous invention.
b. The elephant lives in family groups.
Note: We use this form (the + singular) most often in technical and scientific writing to generalize about classes of animals, body organs, plants, musical instruments, and complex inventions. We do not use this form for simple inanimate objects, like books or coat racks. For these objects, use (Ø + plural).
4. Singular nouns = a/an (when a single example represents the entire group)
a. A rose by any other name would still smell as sweet.
b. A doctor is a highly educated person. Because of this, a doctor also has tremendous earning potential.
Note: Because it is generic reference, second mention does not use "the."

How do you know it's generic? The "all…everywhere" test

Here's a simple test to you can use to identify generic reference while you're reading. To use this test, substitute "all [plural noun] everywhere" for the noun phrase. If the statement is still true, it's probably a generic reference. If not, it’s probably specific (see the next section for details).

Example:

• A whale protects its young—"All whales everywhere" protect their young. (true—generic reference)

• A whale is grounded on the beach—"All whales everywhere" are grounded on the beach. (not true, so this is not generic reference; this "a" refers to "one of many")

You’ll probably find generic references most often in the introduction and conclusion sections and at the beginning of a paragraph that introduces a new topic. Your academic discipline might have a preference for one of the four ways to make generic reference. When you’re reading, try to pay attention to how the writers in your field are doing it, and try to do it the same way in your own writing.

When you mean "one of many"

Talking about "one of many" is also called "indefinite reference." We use it when the noun’s exact identity is unknown to one of the participants: the reader, the writer, or both. Sometimes it’s not possible for the reader or the writer to identify the noun exactly; sometimes it’s not important. In either case, the noun is just "one of many." It’s "indefinite."
When you mean "one of many," you have two article choices: Ø, a/an. The choice of article depends on the noun. Ask yourself, "What kind of noun is it?"

1. Non-count nouns = no article (Ø)
a. Our science class mixed boric acid with water today.
b. We serve bread and water on weekends.
2. Plural nouns = no article (Ø)
a. We're happy when people bring cookies!
b. We need volunteers to help with community events.
3. Singular nouns = a/an
a. Bring an umbrella if it looks like rain.
b. You'll need a visa to stay for more than ninety days.

Note: We use many different expressions for an indefinite quantity of plural or non-count nouns. Words like "some," "several," and "many" use no article (e.g., We need some volunteers to help this afternoon. We really need several people at 3:00.) One exception: "a few" + plural noun (We need a few people at 3:00.)
In certain situations, we always use "a" or "an." These situations include:

1. Referring to something that is one of a number of possible things.
Example: My lab is planning to purchase a new microscope. (Have you chosen one yet? No, we’re still looking at a number of different models.)
2. Referring to one specific part of a larger quantity.
Example: Can I have a bowl of cereal and a slice of toast? (Don't you want the whole box of cereal and the whole loaf of bread? No, thanks. Just a bowl and a slice will be fine.)
3. With certain indefinite quantifiers.
Example: We met a lot of interesting people last night. (You can also say "a bunch of" or "a ton of" when you want to be vague about the exact quantity. Note that these expressions are all phrases: a + quantifier + of.)
Exception: "A few of" does not fit this category. See Number 8 in the next section for the correct usage of this expression.
4. Specifying information associated with each item of a grouping.
Example: My attorney asked for $200 an hour, but I’ll offer him $200 a week instead. (In this case, "a" can substitute for the word "per.")
5. Introducing a noun to the reader for the first time (also called "first mention"). Use "the" for each subsequent reference to that noun if you mean "this one exactly."
Example: I presented a paper last month, and my advisor wants me to turn the paper into an article. If I can get the article written this semester, I can take a break after that! I really need a break!
Note: The writer does not change from "a break" to "the break" with the second mention because she is not referring to one break in particular ("this break exactly"). It's indefinite—any break will be fine!!

When you mean "this one exactly"

Talking about "this one exactly" is also called "definite reference." We use it when both the reader and the writer can identify the exact noun that is being referred to.
When you mean "this one exactly," you have two article choices: Ø, the. The choice of article depends on the noun and on the context. Ask yourself, "What kind of noun is it?"

1. (Most) Proper nouns = no article (Ø)
a. My research will be conducted in Luxembourg.
b. Dr. Homer inspired my interest in Ontario.
Note: Some proper nouns do require "the." See the special notes on nouns below.
2. Non-count nouns = the
a. Step two: mix the water with the boric acid.
b. The laughter of my children is contagious.
3. Plural nouns = the
a. We recruited the nurses from General Hospital.
b. The projects described in your proposal will be fully funded.
4. Singular nouns = the
a. Bring the umbrella in my closet if it looks like rain.
b. Did you get the visa you applied for?

In certain situations, we always use "the" because the noun or the context makes it clear that we’re talking about "this one exactly." The context might include the words surrounding the noun or the context of knowledge that people share. Examples of these situations include:

1. Unique nouns
a. The earth rotates around the sun.
b. The future looks bright!
2. Shared knowledge (both participants know what's being referred to, so it's not necessary to specify with any more details)
a. The boss just asked about the report.
b. Meet me in the parking lot after the show.
3. Second mention (with explicit first mention)
a. I found a good handout on English articles. The handout is available online.
b. You can get a giant ice cream cone downtown. If you can eat the cone in five seconds, you get another one free.
4. Second mention (with implied first mention—this one is very, very common)
a. Dr. Frankenstein performed a complicated surgery. He said the patient is recovering nicely. ("The patient" is implied by "surgery"—every surgery has a patient.)
b. My new shredder works fabulously! The paper is completely destroyed. (Again, "the paper" is implied by "shredder.")
5. Ordinals and superlatives (first, next, primary, most, best, least, etc.)
a. The first man to set foot on the moon…
b. The greatest advances in medicine…
6. Specifiers (sole, only, principle, etc.)
a. The sole purpose of our organization is…
b. The only fact we need to consider is…
7. Restricters (words, phrases, or clauses that restrict the noun to one definite meaning)
a. Study the chapter on osmosis for the test tomorrow.
b. Also study the notes you took at the lecture that Dr. Science gave yesterday.
8. Plural nouns in partitive -of phrases (phrases that indicate parts of a larger whole) (Note: Treat "of the" as a chunk in these phrases—both words in or both words out)
a. Most of the international students (emphasis on part of the group)
b. Most international students (emphasis on the group as a whole)
c. Several of the risk factors (emphasis on part of the group)
d. Several risk factors (emphasis on the group as a whole)
e. A few of the examples (emphasis on part of the group)
f. A few examples (emphasis on the group as a whole)
Note: "Few examples" is different from "a few examples". Compare:
The teacher gave a few good examples. (emphasizes the presence of good examples)
The teacher gave few good examples. (emphasizes the lack of good examples)

Article flowchart

For the more visually oriented, this flowchart sketches out the basic rules and basic questions.

Some notes about nouns

Uncountable nouns

As the name suggests, uncountable nouns (also called non-count or mass nouns) are things that can not be counted. They use no article for generic and indefinite reference, and use "the" for definite reference. Uncountable nouns fall into several categories:

• Abstractions: laughter, information, beauty, love, work, knowledge
• Fields of study: biology, medicine, history, civics, politics (some end in -s but are non-count)
• Recreational activities: football, camping, soccer, dancing (these words often end in -ing)
• Natural phenomena: weather, rain, sunshine, fog, snow (but events are countable: a hurricane, a blizzard, a tornado)
• Whole groups of similar/identical objects: furniture, luggage, food, money, cash, clothes
• Liquids, gases, solids, and minerals: water, air, gasoline, coffee, wood, iron, lead, boric acid
• Powders and granules: rice, sand, dust, calcium carbonate
• Diseases: cancer, diabetes, schizophrenia (but traumas are countable: a stroke, a heart attack, etc.)

Note: Different languages might classify nouns differently

"Research" and "information" are good examples of nouns that are non-count in American English but countable in other languages and other varieties of English. Strategy: Check a dictionary. A learner’s dictionary will indicate whether the noun is countable or not. A regular dictionary will give a plural form if the noun is countable.

Note: Some nouns have both count and non-count meanings

Some nouns have both count and non-count meanings in everyday usage. Some non-count nouns have count meanings only for specialists in a particular field who consider distinct varieties of something that an average person would not differentiate.
Non-count meanings follow the rules for non-count nouns (generic and indefinite reference: no article; definite: "the"); count meanings follow the count rules (a/an for singular, no article for plural). Can you see the difference between these examples?

• John’s performance on all three exams was exceptional.
• John’s performances of Shakespeare were exceptional.
• To be well educated, you need good instruction.
• To assemble a complicated machine, you need good instructions.

Proper nouns

Proper nouns (names of people, places, religions, languages, etc.) are always definite. They take either "the" or no article. Use "the" for regions (like the Arctic) and for a place that’s made up of a collection of smaller parts (like a collection of islands, mountains, lakes, etc.).

Examples:

• Places (singular, no article): Lake Erie, Paris, Zimbabwe, Mount Rushmore
• Places (collective, regional, "the"): the Great Lakes, the Middle East, the Caribbean

Note: Proper nouns in theory names may or may not take articles

When a person’s name is part of a theory, device, principle, law, etc., use "the" when the name does not have a possessive apostrophe. Do not use "the" when the name has an apostrophe.
Examples:

the Doppler effect	Einstein's theory of relativity
the Pareto index	Murphy's law
the Reimann hypothesis	Halley's comet

Note: Articles change when proper nouns function as adjectives

Notice how the article changes with "Great Lakes" in the examples below. When place names are used as adjectives, follow the article rule for the noun they are modifying.

Examples:
I'm studying …

• ...the Great Lakes. (as noun)
• ...a Great Lakes shipwreck.(as adjective with "one of many" singular noun)
• ...the newest Great Lakes museum. (as adjective with "this one exactly" singular noun)
• ...Great Lakes shipping policies. (as adjective with "one of many" plural noun)
• ...Great Lakes history. (as adjective with "one of many" uncountable noun)

Sample #2

6123 Farrington Road
Apt. G11
Chapel Hill, NC 27514
January 11, 2005
     

Taylor, Inc.
694 Rockstar Lane
Durham, NC 27708
Dear Ms. Jones:
I am seeking a position in your engineering department where I may use my training in computer sciences to solve Taylor's engineering problems. I would like to be a part of the department that developed the Internet Selection System but am unsure whether you have a current opening.
I expect to receive a Bachelor of Science degree in Engineering from North Carolina State University in June and by that time will have completed the Computer Systems Engineering Program. Since September 2000, I have been participating, through the University, in the Professional Training Program at Computer Systems International in Raleigh. In the program I was assigned to several staff sections as an apprentice. Most recently, I have been a programmer trainee in the Engineering Department and have gained a great deal of experience in computer applications. Details of the academic courses I have taken are included in the enclosed resume.
If there is a position open at Taylor Inc., please let me know whom I should contact for further information. I look forward to hearing from you soon. I may be reached at my office (919-866-4000 ext. 232) or via email (Brock@aol.com).

Sincerely,

Rebecca Brock

Cover letters

As mentioned previously, application letters and cover letters are not the same. A cover letter identifies an item being sent, the person to whom it is being sent, and the reason for its being sent. A cover letter provides a permanent record of the transmittal for both the writer and the reader.
In a cover letter, keep your remarks brief. Your opening should explain what you are sending and why. In an optional second paragraph, you might include a summary of the information you are sending. A letter accompanying a proposal, for example, might point out sections in the proposal that might be of particular interest to the reader. The letter could then go on to present a key point or two explaining why the writer's firm is the best one for the job. The closing paragraph should contain acknowledgements, offer additional assistance, or express the hope that the material will fulfill its purpose.
The following are examples of cover letters. The first letter (Sample #1) is brief and to the point. The second letter (Sample #2) is slightly more detailed because it touches on the manner in which the information was gathered.

Sample #1

Your Company Logo and Contact Information

January 11, 2005    

Brian Eno, Chief Engineer
Carolina Chemical Products
3434 Pond View Lane
Durham, NC 27708

Dear Mr. Eno:

Enclosed is the final report on our installment of pollution control equipment at Eastern Chemical Company, which we send with Eastern's Permission. Please call me collect (ext. 1206) or email me at the address below if I can answer any questions.

Sincerely,

Nora Cassidy
Technical Services Manager
ncassidy@company.com

Enclosure: Report

Sample #2

Your Company Logo and Contact Information

January 11, 2005

Brian Eno, Chief Engineer
Ecology Systems, Inc.
8458 Obstructed View Lane
Durham, NC 27708

Dear Mr. Eno:
Enclosed is the report estimating our power consumption for the year as requested by John Brenan, Vice President, on September 4.
The report is the result of several meetings with Jamie Anson, Manager of Plant Operations, and her staff and an extensive survey of all our employees. The survey was delayed by the transfer of key staff in Building A. We believe, however, that the report will provide the information you need to furnish us with a cost estimate for the installation of your Mark II Energy Saving System.
We would like to thank Billy Budd of ESI for his assistance in preparing the survey. If you need more information, please let me know.
Sincerely,
Nora Cassidy
New Projects Office
ncassidy@company.com
Enclosure: Report

Works consulted

We consulted these works while writing the original version of this handout. This is not a comprehensive list of resources on the handout's topic, and we encourage you to do your own research to find the latest publications on this topic. Please do not use this list as a model for the format of your own reference list, as it may not match the citation style you are using. For guidance on formatting citations, please see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial.

Focus and specificity

Business writing should be clear and concise. Take care, however, that your document does not turn out as an endless series of short, choppy sentences. Keep in mind also that "concise" does not have to mean "blunt"—you still need to think about your tone and the audience for whom you are writing. Consider the following examples:
After carefully reviewing this proposal, we have decided to prioritize other projects this quarter.
Nobody liked your project idea, so we are not going to give you any funding.
The first version is a weaker statement, emphasizing facts not directly relevant to its point. The second version provides the information in a simple and direct manner. But you don't need to be an expert on style to know that the first phrasing is diplomatic and respectful (even though it's less concise) as compared with the second version, which is unnecessarily harsh and likely to provoke a negative reaction.

Business letters: where to begin

Reread the description of your task (for example, the advertisement of a job opening, instructions for a proposal submission, or assignment prompt for a course). Think about your purpose and what requirements are mentioned or implied in the description of the task. List these requirements. This list can serve as an outline to govern your writing and help you stay focused, so try to make it thorough. Next, identify qualifications, attributes, objectives, or answers that match the requirements you have just listed. Strive to be exact and specific, avoiding vagueness, ambiguity, and platitudes. If there are industry- or field-specific concepts or terminology that are relevant to the task at hand, use them in a manner that will convey your competence and experience. Avoid any language that your audience may not understand. Your finished piece of writing should indicate how you meet the requirements you've listed and answer any questions raised in the description or prompt.

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Application letters and cover letters

Many people believe that application letters and cover letters are essentially the same. For purposes of this handout, though, these kinds of letters are different. The letter of application is a sales letter in which you market your skills, abilities, and knowledge. A cover letter, on the other hand, is primarily a document of transmittal. It identifies an item being sent, the person to whom it is being sent, and the reason for its being sent, and provides a permanent record of the transmittal for both the writer and the reader.

Application letters

When writing an application letter, remember that you probably have competition. Your audience is a professional who screens and hires job applicants—someone who may look through dozens or even hundreds of other applications on the day she receives yours. The immediate objective of your application letter and accompanying resume is to attract this person's attention. Your ultimate goal is to obtain an interview. As you write your application letter, be sure you complete three tasks: catch the reader's attention favorably, convince the reader that you are a qualified candidate for the job, and request an interview.

Application letter checklist:

• Identify the job by title and let the recipient know how you heard about it.
• Summarize your qualifications for the job, specifically your work experience, activities that show your leadership skills, and your educational background.
• Refer the reader to your enclosed resume.
• Ask for an interview, stating where you can be reached and when you will be available. If your prospective employer is located in another city and you plan to visit the area, mention the dates for your trip.
• If you are applying for a specific job, include any information pertinent to the position that is not included in your resume.
  

To save your reader time and to call attention to your strengths as a candidate, state your objective directly at the beginning of the letter.

Example: I am seeking a position as a manager in your Data Center. In such a management position, I can use my master's degree in information systems and my experience as a programmer/analyst to address business challenges in data processing.

If you have been referred to a company by one of its employees, a career counselor, a professor, or someone else, mention that before stating your job objective.

Example: During the recent ARRGH convention in Washington, D.C., one of your sales representatives, Dusty Brown, informed me of a possible opening for a manager in your Data Center. My extensive background in programming and my master's degree in information systems make me highly qualified for the position.

In subsequent paragraphs, expand on the qualifications you mentioned in your opening. Add any appropriate details, highlighting experience listed on your resume that is especially pertinent to the job you are seeking. Close with a request for an interview. Proofread your letter carefully.
Two sample letters of application are presented below. The first letter (Sample #1) is by a recent college graduate responding to a local newspaper article about the company's plan to build a new computer center. The writer is not applying for a specific job opening but describes the position he seeks. The second letter (Sample #2) is from a college senior who does not specify where she learned of the opening because she is uncertain whether a position is available.

Sample #1

    6123 Farrington Road
Apt. B11
Chapel Hill, NC 27514
January 11, 2005

Taylor, Inc.
694 Rockstar Lane
Durham, NC 27708

Dear Human Resources Director:

I just read an article in the News and Observer about Taylor's new computer center just north of Durham. I would like to apply for a position as an entry-level programmer at the center.
I understand that Taylor produces both in-house and customer documentation. My technical writing skills, as described in the enclosed resume, are well suited to your company. I am a recent graduate of DeVry Institute of Technology in Atlanta with an Associate's Degree in Computer Science. In addition to having taken a broad range of courses, I served as a computer consultant at the college's computer center where I helped train users to work with new systems.
I will be happy to meet with you at your convenience and discuss how my education and experience match your needs. You can reach me at my home address, at (919) 233-1552, or at krock@devry.alumni.edu.

Sincerely,

Raymond Krock

Business Letters

 

 

 

What this handout is about

This handout will help you write business letters required in many different situations, from applying for a job to requesting or delivering information. While the examples that are discussed specifically are the application letter and cover letter, this handout also highlights strategies for effective business writing in general.

Principles to keep in mind

Business writing is different

Writing for a business audience is usually quite different than writing in the humanities, social sciences, or other academic disciplines. Business writing strives to be crisp and succinct rather than evocative or creative; it stresses specificity and accuracy. This distinction does not make business writing superior or inferior to other styles. Rather, it reflects the unique purpose and considerations involved when writing in a business context.
When you write a business document, you must assume that your audience has limited time in which to read it and is likely to skim. Your readers have an interest in what you say insofar as it affects their working world. They want to know the "bottom line": the point you are making about a situation or problem and how they should respond.
Business writing varies from the conversational style often found in email messages to the more formal, legalistic style found in contracts. A style between these two extremes is appropriate for the majority of memos, emails, and letters. Writing that is too formal can alienate readers, and an attempt to be overly casual may come across as insincere or unprofessional. In business writing, as in all writing, you must know your audience.
In most cases, the business letter will be the first impression that you make on someone. Though business writing has become less formal over time, you should still take great care that your letter's content is clear and that you have proofread it carefully.

Pronouns and active versus passive voice

Personal pronouns (like I, we, and you) are important in letters and memos. In such documents, it is perfectly appropriate to refer to yourself as I and to the reader as you. Be careful, however, when you use the pronoun we in a business letter that is written on company stationery, since it commits your company to what you have written. When stating your opinion, use I; when presenting company policy, use we.
The best writers strive to achieve a style that is so clear that their messages cannot be misunderstood. One way to achieve a clear style is to minimize your use of the passive voice. Although the passive voice is sometimes necessary, often it not only makes your writing dull but also can be ambiguous or overly impersonal. Here's an example of the same point stated in passive voice and in the active voice:

PASSIVE: The net benefits of subsidiary divestiture were grossly overestimated.
[Who did the overestimating?]

ACTIVE: The Global Finance Team grossly overestimated the net benefits of subsidiary divestiture.

The second version is clearer and thus preferable.

Of course, there are exceptions to every rule. What if you are the head of the Global Finance Team? You may want to get your message across without calling excessive attention to the fact that the error was your team's fault. The passive voice allows you to gloss over an unflattering point—but you should use it sparingly.

SECP simplifies grant of licenses to non-profit associations

 



KARACHI:The Security and Exchange Commission of Pakistan (SECP) has simplified and relaxed conditions for grant of license to non-profit associations, regarding multiple objectives, start-up donation, mandatory registration within three months, and criteria for CIB Reports.

According to SECP here Wednesday, an association will be allowed to promote multiple objectives. A few years ago, a condition was added to allow licensing only to associations having a single objective.

However, it was noticed that many genuine cases that required multiple objectives were denied license and were required to curtail their proposed activities to a single objective, causing impediments to the charitable and welfare-oriented causes.

The condition of start-up donation by each promoter of at least Rs 0.2 million has been relaxed, as it was detrimental to the corporate growth. It was observed that many skilled and professional persons were reluctant to become subscribers of associations due to this condition.

Similarly, the association obtaining license is required to get itself incorporated as a company under the ordinance within a period of three months of the date of license. There was no mechanism to allow incorporation to subscribers that did not turn up for incorporation within the stipulated period.

To provide a remedy to such subscribers, now the licensing authority, in special circumstances, may extend the time period on an application made by the applicants for grant of such extension.

While processing a case for the grant of license to an association, the CIB Reports were called from State Bank of Pakistan and license was granted on obtaining clear CIB Reports of promoters.

It was observed that these CIB Reports often indicate small amounts of overdue loans due to which promoters were advised either to get clearance from the creditors/ banks and secure clear CIB report or to exclude such promoters.

Due to this practice, promoters of associations were facing a lot of difficulties. The condition is now relaxed and the persons whose CIB Reports show total overdue amount exceeding Rs 0.3 million shall not be allowed to act as promoter of the association.

Cathay Pacific first-half net profit falls 59pc

HONG KONG:Cathay Pacific on Wednesday said net profit tumbled in the first six months of the year but added it would push on with its expansion plans by ordering 12 aircraft from Boeing worth more than $3 billion.The Hong Kong-based carrier said it earned HK$2.8 billion ($359 million) in January-June, 59 percent below the HK$6.84 billion a year earlier due to soaring fuel prices as well as impact of the Japan earthquake.
Revenue rose 13.2 percent to HK$46.79 billion.
"After an exceptionally strong 2010, in which we made record profits, 2011 is proving to be more challenging," Chairman Christopher Pratt said in a statement to Hong Kong's stock exchange.
"High fuel prices are increasing costs and recovering them through higher tariff may affect demand."
He added that the "outlook for the world economy is uncertain and a return to recessionary economic conditions would also affect demand and possibly average price levels."
Fuel is usually an airline's single-biggest cost with Cathay saying costs soared almost 50 percent in the first half of the year compared with the same period on 2010.
Despite the profit drop, Cathay said it was pushing ahead with plans to boost its ageing fleet, saying it had agreed to buy 12 planes from US aircraft maker Boeing at a list price of $3.28 billion.
However the actual price tag will be well below that figure because the carrier had won "significant price concessions" from Boeing, Cathay said.
The deal includes four 777-300ER passenger jets and eight 777-200F freighter aircraft with delivery to start in 2013, Cathay said.
"The Boeing aircraft will replenish and expand the fleet capacity of the company," it said in a separate statement Wednesday.
"They will principally serve long-haul destinations in North America and Europe," it added.
The latest plane purchase comes after Cathay said in March that it was buying and leasing 27 aircraft from Airbus and Boeing in a deal worth as much as $6.55 billion.
That announcement came as Cathay posted a record net profit of HK$14.05 billion for 2010, nearly triple the HK$4.69 billion in 2009.
The latest results saw the carrier book passenger revenue of HK$31.77 billion, up 15.9 percent over the previous year, with Cathay and its regional unit Dragonair carrying 13.2 million passengers, up 1.7 percent over 2010.
Demand for economy class seats was "slightly less than expected" but premium seat sales "remained strong, despite economic uncertainties in a number of world economies", Cathay said.
However the March 11 earthquake-tsunami and ensuing atomic crisis in Japan saw a "significant" drop off in demand from what Cathay said was one of its most important markets.
The carrier's cargo business "performed reasonably" in the first quarter but then began to soften in its key Hong Kong and mainland China markets, it said.
Cargo revenue for the first half of 2011 was up 7.7 percent year on year at HK$11.63 billion.

Retailers save

Retailers save on swipe fees with discounts

While consumers may think of interest as the only cost of paying with plastic, retailers have long been burdened with "swipe fees" the credit card companies charge them for every transaction. The Federal government instituted a cap on swipe fees on July 21, limiting them to 7 to 12 cents per transaction. 

However, the National Retail Federation maintains that the cap — which significantly reduces the current swipe cost average of 44 cents per transaction — is still too high. 

"It's a step in the right direction, but it's not good enough," said Mallory Duncan, SVP and general counsel at the National Retail Federation. "The actual transaction costs 4 cents or less. The banks are getting a return of 75% to 200%, while the average net profit in the retail industry is about 2%."

The US has the highest swipe fees in the industrialized world. In 2008, Visa and MasterCard charged retailers $48 billion in swipe fees, averaging about $427 per household. 

Duncan anticipates that the cap will help competition, and that retailers will pass the savings along to consumers by way of lower prices. Retailers will be able to give discounts to consumers paying with cash or debit cards, saving them the swipe fees. Some gas stations have already instituted such discounts.

Of course, some retailers may simply pocket the difference. "I don't think many retailers will want to make their savings on swipe fees public, but I can envision a scenario where maybe WalMart does," said Dan Stanek, EVP at marketing firm Big Red Rooster. "It's lost customers to dollar stores, which tend to have more cash transactions, and has been trying to regain its footing as the low-price leader. It can use swipe fee-related savings as an advantage it offers over the competition." 

"Merchants will also make a conspicuous
effort to market incentives that push consumers to use debit cards instead of credit cards," explained Brian Dodge, SVP of communications and state affairs at the Retail Industry Leaders Association. 

Retailers have previously used subtle techniques to get consumers to choose debit, incl-uding making it the default on card readers. Now they'll also be able to pick which debit-processing network to use. Dodge hopes the reform and subsequent marketing of savings will make consumers more aware of how their choice of payment costs retailers.

Doug McIntyre, CEO and founder of Cult Marketing, whose clients include Bath & Body Works and Big Lots, isn't so sure we'll see a radical change in marketing. 

"There may be interesting promotions, but it'll be like what we see with online companies offering free shipping. These discounts just become something consumers expect," he said. "I don't think they'll know or really care that they're the result of changes in 
swipe fees."


Retailers and marketers alike expect the war over swipe fees to rage on. "There's little reason to believe that the banks will ever accept this defeat and give up," said Dodge. "However, merchants will not stop fighting to defend these reforms and expand them to address the even higher fees associated with credit cards."

Hallmark Business Expressions

For businesses comfortable with showing their softer side, Hallmark Business Expressions has offered customizable greeting cards with a minimum order of 25,000 for 11 years. But next month, the Hallmark Cards subsidiary launches a Web site, hbecards.com, that lowers the minimum order to 100 cards that can be personalized. A catalog supporting the site follows in September.


Hallmark Business Expressions targets businesses that give greeting cards to their employees or customers. The selection includes cards for anniversaries, welcomes, thank yous, birthdays and blank cards. Until now, the entire message inside each 25,000-card order of a single design was customized by the purchasing business. Hallmark Business Expressions thinks this high entry point may have turned away some sales.


"Companies have multiple opportunities to send greeting cards, but any one opportunity might not exceed the 25,000-card minimum," said Cindy Mahoney, Hallmark Business Expressions general manager. On the other hand, some of the division's customers order millions of cards at a time, she said.


This is why the company plans a Web site where companies can place a minimum order of 100 cards. Orders from 100 to 10,000 of a single card design will have a standard message. Customers can pay additional fees to have the cards hand personalized and mailed directly from Hallmark Business Expressions' fulfillment center in Duluth, MN.


Not only will the Web site let smaller companies work with Hallmark Business Expressions, it will give large companies a chance to test using a Hallmark greeting card with a smaller quantity, Mahoney said.


Hbecards.com users will be able to upload their databases of names to the site. That information will be transmitted to the fulfillment center, which will use it to personalize and fulfill orders.


For orders exceeding 10,000, Hallmark Business Expressions will work directly with customers.


To complement the site, Hallmark Business Expressions will mail its first catalog in September to 100,000 names. A few of the catalogs will go to the division's house file. However, the goal "is to build on our house list," Mahoney said.


The company looks to diversify in terms of whom it targets as it tries to determine where the highest response rates come from. Therefore, the catalog will mail to various individuals, including human resources and administrative personnel in large companies as well as principals in legal, veterinary, real estate and financial services firms. The umbrella strategy for the mailing is to target "professionals who rely on personal communication for their business needs," Mahoney said.


The catalog aims to drive recipients to the Web site, though it will feature an 800 number as well. The premiere issue will have 28 pages and feature images of everyday as well as holiday cards. It will show representations of various sentiments that can be printed on a card and of the personalization service. Additional issues will go quarterly to about 100,000 names per mailing.


The cards are priced at $1.25 apiece for orders from 100 to 10,000 and between 80 cents and $1.25 for orders over 10,000. Personalization for smaller orders costs another $1 per card.

 

Business cards side-lined by digital contact revolution

The name's Bond: Today's super-spies don't need to rely on having their business cards to hand to give a girl their number.

Industries may change and brand names may come and go, but at least one tradition in the business world has remained largely unchanged for hundreds of years.

The exchange of cards between two people who are meeting for the first time is a ritual that goes back as far as business itself.
For most of us, the handing over of contact details is an important moment - a clear signal that a connection has been made.
But as our lives turn increasingly digital, technology is attempting to provide a range of futuristic alternatives to the old-fashioned card.

Ever since the arrival of electronic communication, people have been exploring new ways to share information with each other- from swapping email addresses to trading mobile phone numbers and, increasingly, connecting through an online social network.

A range of services have appeared to take advantage of this trend, including Bump Technologies, a two-year-old startup based in California's Silicon Valley. Its application, which users download to their phones, lets people trade contact details simply by tapping their handsets together.
It is an approach that has a number of advantages over the traditional paper card, says Bump's Sadie Bascom - particularly since nobody goes anywhere without their mobile these days.
"It's easy, always on your phone, and you never have to remember to grab a stack of physical cards or worry about them running out."
It also gives users the chance to add directly to somebody's address book - skipping the need to enter those details by hand or saving people the chore of rifling through piles of cards to find the details they are looking for.
"People's dependence on their mobile devices to help them manage their lives is increasing," she adds. "Why take a few minutes to type someone into our phone when you can bump and save their info in a matter of seconds?
Keeping it old school
While the trend to go completely digital might be growing, however, there is still a roaring trade in traditional cards. But even those are now getting a number of hi-tech overhauls.

Moo founder Richard Moross says a physical card conveys personality

Lower manufacturing costs mean that it is easier and cheaper than ever to make customised cards - leading some who want to stand out from the crowd to opt for innovative designs and materials such as aluminium and plastic that were previously too expensive to use.
London-based service Moo.com, meanwhile, has taken advantage of technology in a different way. Advanced digital printing techniques mean that Moo customers can use their own photographs to create a stack of hundreds of cards which each carry different, personalised images.
As a result the company, which now has customers worldwide and an office in the US, has built a strong following among creative professionals and technology-led businesses.
Richard Moross, Moo's founder and chief executive, says that this is because a physical card "conveys the card holder's personality through design".
"It's way more than just contact info," he says. "The more prevalent digital becomes, the more meaningful interacting is in the real world - analogue still rules at conferences and events. Using a digital business card can be a bit like talking on your phone at the dinner table."

 

Strict etiquette surrounds swapping meishi - or business cards - in Japan

 

Indeed, in some cultures, the role of the physical calling card is still hugely important.
While Americans might casually flip out a card from their wallet, for example, Japanese executives will carefully present their cards with both hands as a sign of respect.
But what is clear in almost every case, however, is that the advances in online networking mean the lines between professional and personal are becoming increasingly blurred.
The more information we share online through services like Facebook, Twitter and blogs, the bigger the idea of swapping contact details becomes - regardless of whether it's done physically or virtually.
"We have since seen a shift in the demographic as Bump gained popularity," says Sadie Bascom. "The majority of bumps now actually occur after 5pm, and our most used features are the photo sharing and messaging tools."

Business card

Business cards are cards bearing business information about a company or individual. They are shared during formal introductions as a convenience and a memory aid. A business card typically includes the giver's name, company affiliation (usually with a logo) and contact information such as street addresses, telephone numberfax number, e-mail addresses and website. It can also include telex, bank account, tax code. Traditionally many cards were simple black text on white stock; today a professional business card will sometimes include one or more aspects of striking visual design.
Business cards are printed on some form of card stock, the visual effect, method of printing, cost and other details varying according to cultural or organizational norms and personal preferences. The common weight of a business card varies some by location. Generally, business cards are printed on stock that is 350 g/m² (density), 45 kg (100 lb) (weight), or 12 pt (thickness).
High quality business cards without full-color photographs are normally printed using spot colors on sheet-fed offset printing presses. Some companies have gone so far as to trademark their spot colors (examples are UPS brown, Los Angeles Lakers' purple, and Tide's orange). If a business card logo is a single color and the type is another color, the process is considered two color. More spot colors can be added depending on the needs of the card. With the onset of digital printing, and batch printing, it is now cost effective to print business cards in full color.
To simulate the "raised-print" effect of printing with engraved plates, a less-expensive process called thermography was developed that uses the application of a plastic powder, which adheres to the wet ink. The cards are then passed through a heating unit, which melts the plastic onto the card. Spot UV varnish onto matte laminate can also have a similar effect.
Full color cards, or cards that use many colors, are printed on sheetfed presses as well; however, they use the CMYK (cyan, magenta, yellow, and black) four-color printing process. Screens of each color overprinted on one another create a wide gamut of color. The downside to this printing method is that screened colors if examined closely will reveal tiny dots, whereas spot color cards are printed solid in most cases. Spot colors should be used for simple cards with line art or non-black type that is smaller than 5 points.
Some terminology in reference to full-color printing:

• 4/0 - Full Color Front / No Print On Back
• 4/1 - Full Color Front / One color On reverse
• 4/4 - Full Color Front / Full Color Back

These names are pronounced as "four over zero," "four over one," or in some cases "four over four".
A business card can also be coated with a UV glossy coat (offset-uv printing). The coat is applied just like another ink using an additional unit on a sheetfed press. That being said, UV coats can also be applied as a spot coating - meaning areas can be coated, and other areas can be left uncoated. This creates additional design potential.
Business cards can also be printed with a digital copier, which uses toner baked onto the surface of the card. Some industry leaders have begun to avoid using the term "copier" in their literature, insisting their state-of-the-art machines are more like digital presses, than their office-oriented predecessors.
While some of the older office copiers may have had problems running heavy business card stock, the newest digital presses can print on stock as heavy as 80# to 100# cover stock, and 12 to 14 point stocks with ease.
UV coats, and other coatings such as Aqueous Coatings are used to speed manufacturing of the cards. Cards that are not dry will "offset" which means the ink from the front of one card will end up on the back of the next one. UV coatings are generally highly glossy but are more likely to fingerprint, while aqueous coatings are not noticeable but increase the life of the card. It is possible to use a dull aqueous coating on uncoated stock and get some very durable uncoated cards, and using UV coating or plastic lamination can also be applied to thicken thin stocked cards and make them more durable as well.
When cards are designed, they are given bleeds if color extends to the edge of the finished cut size. (A bleed is the extension of printed lines or colors beyond the line where the paper it is printed on will be cut.) This is to help ensure that the paper will cut without white edges due to very small differences in where the blade cuts the cards, and it is almost impossible to cut the cards properly without. Just being a hair off can result in white lines, and the blade itself will pull the paper while cutting. The image on the paper can also shift from page to page which is called a bounce, which is generally off by a hairline on an offset press, but can be quite large on lower end equipment such as a copier or a duplicator press. Bleeds are typically an extra 3.175 (¹⁄₈) to 6.35 mm (¹⁄₄ in) to all sides of the card.

• Bleed size: 95.25 × 57.15 mm (3.75 × 2.25 in) (¹⁄₈ in bleeds)
• Standard cut size: 89 × 51 mm (3.5 × 2 in)

Fold-over or "tent" cards, and side fold cards are popular as well. Generally these cards will fold to the standard size.
In today's global marketplace, cards often are printed with English on one side and the local language (if not English) on the other.